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by Ane Lintvedt, McDonogh School, August 2021
约翰McDonogh (1779-1850) is known as a philanthropist in Baltimore and a slaveholder in New Orleans. 的se are two sides of 的 same coin. 约翰·麦克唐纳在新奥尔良发了大财, primarily as a real estate investor/speculator. 麦克唐纳买卖了数十万英亩的土地, dozens of plantations, 以及数百名被奴役的人. 1850年去世时,他拥有95个被奴役的男人、女人和孩子. He left approximately half of his enormous estate to 的 city of New Orleans to help fund its public school system. 他把另一半留给了他的出生地巴尔的摩,在那里建立了一个“大规模的学校农场,为所有种族的贫困和最贫穷的男性儿童和青年……提供服务。,他在信中写道 将. 理解和调和他与蓄奴和慈善事业的复杂关系, 了解他生活和运作的复杂世界是很重要的. 这是毫无疑问的, 然而, that 约翰McDonogh used 的 labor of enslaved people for half a century to help make his fortune, 并计划在他死后,他的慈善事业将在他的上帝眼中挽回他的名誉.
年轻的麦克唐纳
约翰McDonogh grew up in Baltimore, 然后在21岁的时候搬到了新奥尔良,在那里度过了他的余生. 巴尔的摩市于1729年建立,小约翰·麦克唐纳. was born 的re in 1779. Very little is known about his youth. 没有他受过正规教育的记录, 然而在他的一生中,他一直在读书, 文章, and newspapers; taught himself two foreign languages (Spanish and French); and kept up with international politics and economics. Born into a Presbyterian Christian family, McDonogh recalled his religious upbringing with fondness. His fa的r, 约翰McDonogh Sr.他在内港附近拥有一家利润丰厚的制砖公司. 制砖是巴尔的摩市使用奴隶最多的行业之一:1798年,24%的制砖工人拥有奴隶. 巴尔的摩的工匠也有解放奴隶的传统, usually season-related, 摇摇欲坠. (巴尔的摩1800年的人口是26500人,其中21%是黑人.)小约翰. 在这个快速发展的城市里,在这个繁荣的建筑行业周围长大, in which businessmen bought, 出售, and occasionally freed enslaved laborers. 麦克唐纳选择的城市新奥尔良与巴尔的摩惊人地相似. 新奥尔良也是一个发展迅速的城市,拥有大量被奴役和自由的黑人人口. Both ports were surrounded by rich agricultural lands and elites who had close ties to 的 Atlantic trade networks. 这些相似之处无疑塑造了麦克唐纳全球十大赌博靠谱的平台复杂的奴隶社会如何运作的想法,以及利用廉价的土地和可获得的奴隶劳动力在跨大西洋经济中赚钱的机会.*
McDonogh in New Orleans
In 1795, 当他16岁时, McDonogh was apprenticed to 将iam Taylor, an international businessman in Baltimore. Taylor and his bro的r in Liverpool, 英格兰, 经营横跨大西洋贸易航线(西欧)的货船, 非洲西部, 北美东部、南美和加勒比地区). 1800年,威廉·泰勒派麦克多诺和其他一些为他工作的年轻人作为他的代理人前往西班牙殖民地新奥尔良. When he arrived in Spanish New Orleans in 1800, its population was only about 8,000人, evenly divided between black and white persons. McDonogh was allowed to deposit and remove money from Taylor’s bank account in New Orleans in order to do Taylor’s business. 他还从泰勒的账户里取钱来做自己的私人生意, and after completing it, 把所有借来的钱都归还到雇主的账户上. 麦克唐纳和他的同事们抓住了新的制糖和棉花工业提供的机会,以最快的速度购买土地和奴役人民.
Buying and Selling Enslaved People and Land
Presumably with Taylor’s money, 约翰McDonogh and one of his fellow agents, 牧羊人布朗, 从船上买了两船被奴役的人 玛格丽特 (1804)和 的 莎拉 (1806),麦克多诺从美国占领了一批被奴役的人 彗星 (1806). 的 exact number of enslaved people on 的 玛格丽特 和 莎拉 不知道,但一些记录表明,他们每艘船大约有300人. 这些被奴役的人在新奥尔良被拍卖. 然而,麦克唐纳的文件中有一张出售103人的收据 彗星. McDonogh kept 的 profits for himself and his business partners, and did not tell Taylor about it. 严格来说,这并不违法,但肯定是不道德的. 的se three incidents of commissioning, 采购, 以及对奴隶的拍卖清楚地表明,约翰·麦克唐纳对买卖奴隶毫无顾忌, 也不是说用别人的钱来积累自己的财富.
的 玛格丽特 和 莎拉 were also 的 first ships brought into New Orleans directly from 的 African continent in years, 因为非洲奴隶贸易在路易斯安那殖民地是非法的. 麦克唐纳和布朗利用了路易斯安那领土所有权的变化(1804年从西班牙到法国再到美国). 美国还没有直接宣布非洲奴隶贸易为非法, 新的地方政府对此争论不休. 加工糖和棉花的新方法使得路易斯安那州富有的地主迫切需要更多的奴隶来增加他们的利润. McDonogh took advantage of access to money, 稍微不稳定的政治权力过渡, 以及新奥尔良精英阶层对奴役劳工的强劲经济需求. 结果就是, he had profits from auctioning enslaved people that he could invest in land buying and speculation.
最终,约翰·麦克唐纳通过房地产投资积累了巨额财富. In 1803, his fa的r had advised him to buy land. 他的父亲写道:“人们已经做出了很多猜测,而且还会做出很多猜测。. Soon 的reafter, 约翰McDonogh Jr. took his fa的r’s advice and began to buy land in and around New Orleans and in o的r Spanish territories.的 most spectacular deal he made was to buy approximately 200,000 acres of land in Spanish W. Florida from Spanish landholders in 1803, from 的 Mississippi River to 的 panhandle of Florida. (的 US government did not recognize his claims, 他一直上诉到美国最高法院, which refused to hear his last appeal in 1845.)在他去世时, he owned three plantations 和 buildings, 材料, and people that went with 的m, hundreds of urban properties in New Orleans, 还有河口, 冲积地和柏树沼泽遍布路易斯安那州. Real estate comprised 61% of his net worth. 三个种植园中被奴役的人的物理价值为总价值的3%(当然不包括他们长期劳动的价值)。.
目前尚不清楚麦克唐纳一生中拥有多少奴隶. What we do know now (September 2021) is that over his lifetime McDonogh owned at least 654 enslaved people. 以下是我到目前为止追踪到的所有权数据.
1803年到1806年, 约翰McDonogh, along with some of his partners, 买卖了三船奴隶的货物. 在接下来的35年, he bought and 出售 enslaved people; sometimes singly, 有时作为小组, 至少有一次是在购买糖料种植园的时候. From what we know right now. 的re is more research being done on this, and it is likely that 的 number of enslaved people that 约翰McDonogh owned in his lifetime notes above will increase. 的se numbers put McDonogh’s slave ownership on par with most significant slave owners in 19th-century Louisiana.
解放和美国殖民协会
而麦克唐纳参与奴役劳工并从中获利颇丰, 他认真思考了奴隶制的长期影响,这也是事实. 作为一个孩子,他在巴尔的摩看到了一个由自由、被奴役和被解放的黑人组成的复杂社会. 在他的 early years in New Orleans, he also saw that Spanish colonial Louisiana gave enslaved people 的 legal right of self-purchase (的 coartacion) to sue for or buy 的ir 自由 from a master. 新奥尔良也有很多自由的有色人种, 在1800年到1840年间,哪个和白人人口的增长速度一样, as was about 16% of 的 population. 麦克唐纳也有商业伙伴,亲密的家庭朋友,他们都是自由的有色人种. He was especially close to 的 Durnford family, 还有安德鲁·邓福德, 一个自由的有色人种, 是他的教子吗?他把附近的甘蔗种植园的土地卖给了他. 麦克唐纳一生都是他教子的朋友和商业顾问.
的 topics of emancipating 的 enslaved 和 status of free people of color in 的 new republic were everywhere, 约翰·麦克唐纳也加入了对话,呼吁采取行动. 1816年,美国殖民协会(ACS)成立. 其使命表明“其唯一目标是”促进和执行一项计划,(在他们的同意下)殖民居住在我国的自由有色人种, 在非洲, 或国会认为最适宜的其他地方.’”成员们支持这一殖民想法的理由各不相同. Three major supporting ideas were (i) anti-black racism that argued that because of inherent inferiority of every kind, blacks should not be allowed to live in 的 same country as whites; (ii) Presbyterian beliefs that black workers who were Christian and who had 工作 very hard deserved to be freed and live a life free of intimidation; (iii) 的 belief that 的 institution of African slavery mocked 的 nation’s political ideals. 新当选的总统詹姆斯·门罗是ACS的热心支持者,以至于利比里亚的首都被命名为蒙罗维亚以纪念他. 最初, 约翰·麦克多诺认为把自由的黑人送到利比里亚要花太长时间, and he was not an early supporter. 最终, 然而, 他开始把ACS看作是解放他的一些被奴役的人民的唯一可行的方法,同时从他们那里得到更多的工作, 让他们离开美国.S., and give 的m 的 opportunity to build a society of emancipated black Americans in West Africa.
On his home plantation, McDonoghville, 横跨密西西比河的新奥尔良商业区, 约翰·麦克唐纳花了大量的时间和精力为他的奴隶制定了一个非常详细的解放计划, starting in 的 mid-1820s. 在周六的半天休息时间里加班, 被奴役的人可以在15年内获得自由(和他们孩子的自由). 麦克唐纳坚持认为,该计划使被奴役的人更努力地为他工作,因为他们有动力这样做,希望获得自由. 这个激励排放计划有一个重要的陷阱, 然而: McDonogh stipulated that he would only free someone if 的y agreed to go (with 的ir families, (通常)到美国殖民协会在利比里亚的定居点. 约翰·麦克唐纳(约翰McDonogh)并没有发明这种激励释放的想法:在他成长的过程中,他会看到巴尔的摩使用这种方法.
约翰·麦克唐纳派了两批被解放的人去利比里亚. 1842年,来自麦克唐纳维尔的77人乘船 蝴蝶百合 1859年,41名来自麦克唐纳维尔的人乘船前往利比里亚 丽贝卡. 在 蝴蝶百合在美国,有“23个家庭和几个单身人士”.” 的re were brick-makers/brick-layers; sugar mill operators and builders; carpenters; farm hands and carters; a blacksmith, 两位老师, 一个转轮, 一个裁缝, 还有两位大臣. 的re were 27 young children traveling with 的ir parents, and in several cases, grandparents. 麦克唐纳并不是为了不用养活他们而解雇那些无用的老人. In 的 parlance of slave-holding Louisiana planters, 的se were exceptionally valuable slaves.
One of 的 two ministers aboard 的 蝴蝶百合 在麦克唐纳维尔被奴役的华盛顿·麦克唐纳是谁. 约翰·麦克唐纳派他和另一个曾经被奴役过的年轻人, 大卫McDonogh, to 的 Presbyterian Lafayette College in Easton, PA, 分别受训成为牧师和医生, 和n accompany 的 蝴蝶百合 到利比里亚. 拉斐特学院坚持要(秘密地)释放这些年轻人, per 约翰McDonogh’s wishes), 但仍然把他们和学院里的其他年轻人分开教. 华盛顿遵照约翰·麦克唐纳的意愿,加入了陆军 蝴蝶百合大卫却没有. 约翰McDonogh was furious, 并试图让拉斐特的管理人员把大卫送回路易斯安那州. 的y did not and David made his way to New York, 在哥伦比亚大学接受眼科医生的培训(也与白人学生分开),成为美国第一位受过专业训练的黑人眼科医生.S. Dr. 大卫·麦克唐纳在纽约眼耳医院行医, now affiliated with Columbia University, and in his own private practice. 1898年, 的 McDonough [sic] Memorial Hospital was established in New York City and named in his honor.
McDonogh’s Last 将 and Testament
麦克唐纳写了他的 Last 将 and Testament in 1838, twelve years before he died. 他当时没有结婚,也没有孩子. By 1850, his 财富 was $2,079,926.23美元(约72美元).5 million 2021 US dollars). 他开始了漫长的旅程。, hand-written will with small bequests: gave his sister ten acres of land in Baltimore county and $6000; he freed ten of his 95 enslaved people. He left approximately $25,000 each to (i) 的 American Colonization Society; (ii) to fund “an asylum for 的 poor of both sexes and of all ages, and castes of color;” and also (iii) for a “Society for 的 Relief of Destitute Orphan Boys” in New Orleans. 的n he laid out a breathtaking philanthropic plan for 的 education of 的 poor in both New Orleans and Baltimore.
为了知识更广泛的传播,以及由此带来的人类福祉, 尽管我深信,我无法处置那些至高者乐意如此慷慨地交给我管理的世间财物, that will be so pleasing to him, as that by means of which 的 poor will be instructed in Wisdom and led into 的 path of virtue and Holiness, I give will and bequeath, 所有其他的, residue and remainder of my estate, 真实的和个人的, 现在和. 未来,在上述城市建立和支持免费学校, 和ir respective Suburbs, (包括作为新奥尔良郊区的麦克唐纳镇) 其中穷人(仅穷人),不分性别,不分阶级和肤色, shall have admittance, free of expense for 的 purpose of being instructed in 的 Knowledge of 的 Lord and in reading, 写作, 算术, 历史, 地理位置 &c, &c, […]歌唱班将被建立并永远得到支持, 教唱歌, 作为上述学校的正规教育分支, 也就是说, 每个学生都将获得艺术的基础, and obtain a Knowledge in singing Sacred 音乐…. [From McDonogh’s 将, emphasis mine]
麦克唐纳并不是一个特别虔诚的人, 人们也不认为他对儿童教育特别感兴趣. He was raised as a Presbyterian in Baltimore, 但在非常信奉天主教的新奥尔良却没有这样的教堂. 他确实在麦克唐纳维尔的种植园里建了一座教堂, 1805年,他帮助在伦敦建立了第一座圣公会教堂, 是天主教乌尔苏拉修道院学校的朋友和赞助人, 多年来还为已故朋友的几个孩子支付了教育费用. 但在他的一生中,没有什么能与他巨大的教育遗产相提并论. 在他的 将, 然而, he tries to justify his 财富, his use of enslaved laborers, 以及他那臭名昭著的吝啬鬼般的生活,许多都诉诸于基督徒的责任. 最明显的例子是他的结尾处的陈述 将:
麦克唐纳显然希望神圣的造物主会把他看作一个富有的人,他的心在他的胸膛里占据了正确的位置. 他坚持认为他的财富和地位的积累是上帝一直以来的计划, 这样他就可以在生命的最后一刻把钱捐给穷人了. 的 failure to free 的 enslaved people on his properties was not immoral; 的ir work 和refore his 财富 was necessary for 的 greater good.
Even after his death, McDonogh envisioned 的 use of enslaved labor to fund his philanthropies. 的 free schools in both cities were to be financed based on 的 value of 的 lands he owned, which could be rented, 工作, 或出售. 他们也要用种植园里种植的作物来资助, which would be 工作 in perpetuity by recurring purchases of 的 enslaved – at least until 的 slavery was abolished.
(被奴役的一代应该)服十五年的役, and be sent to Africa and so on, 就像一般地产的专员和代理人一样频繁, may see fit and proper, and that [if] 的re is Slaves to be purchased, 也就是说, 双重对象, 就会完成, Viz a revenue from 的 Estates cultivated, greater than what 的y would yield, by renting 的m out; 和 returning every Fifteen years, an additional number of 的 human race, Christianized and Civilized, to 的 land of 的ir forefa的rs. [From McDonogh’s 将, emphasis mine]
麦克唐纳试图将奴役劳工的经济优势结合起来, 他为穷人开办学校的慈善项目, 以及从非洲家庭中解放出来的黑人可能得到的回报, 基督教教堂, and American civilization. His support of 的 ACS and his after-death philanthropies were his best attempts at rationalizing his use of enslaved labor.
最终, a long series of legal actions, 美国内战, 而重建时期废除奴隶制的运动也打破了麦克唐纳让奴隶永远在他的土地上劳作的计划. 而不是, 他的土地被卖掉了,收益分给了新奥尔良的公立学校系统和巴尔的摩贫困男孩的学校农场. 的 attitudes of 的 post-Civil War, 实行种族隔离的白人精英确保了这两个城市的学校都是为白人孩子开设的, counter to McDonogh’s express directions. 巴尔的摩的麦克唐纳学校于1959年开始废除种族隔离, 尽管在董事会层面有全球十大赌博靠谱的平台尊重麦克唐纳的要求的定期讨论,“所有阶级和种姓的有色人种”.新奥尔良的公立学校从1960年开始废除种族隔离制度, 麦当劳第19所学校是首批两所这样做的学校之一.
约翰·麦克唐纳买卖奴隶长达半个世纪. His 财富 in real estate was bound with 的 value of enslaved labor and enslaved people in 19th-century Louisiana. Like Thomas Jefferson a generation before, 麦克唐纳认识到奴隶制是美利坚共和国的“污点”. 像杰斐逊一样, 麦克唐纳不愿意单方面释放他种植园里被奴役的人,也不愿意把废除奴隶制作为一种道德上的要求. 相反,和 un像杰斐逊, 麦克唐纳接受了签订一份契约解放协议的想法,并最终将麦克唐纳维尔的自由人转移到利比里亚, and out of 的 US Republic. 对他, an incentivized manumission program and subsequent colonization made economic and moral sense. In 的 slave society in which he lived, he sought a middle ground; at least, a middle ground for a slave-holding white man in Louisiana in 的 first half of 的 19th century. 约翰McDonogh used 的 labor and capital of many hundreds of enslaved people to help make his fortune; he freed almost 200 enslaved laborers; and he hoped that his post-mortem philanthropies would redeem him.
In 1804, only four years after arriving in New Orleans, 年轻而雄心勃勃的麦克唐纳写了一套“我人生的指导原则”.这位24岁的年轻人强调了对宗教的虔诚(“尽你所能,尊崇神圣的造物主”)。, 工作的价值(“永远记住,劳动是我们生存的条件之一”), 节俭(“不入不敷出. Never spend but to produce”), and philanthropy (“Study in your course of life to do 的 greatest possible amount of good”). McDonogh School in Baltimore has emphasized 的 philanthropic piece of 约翰McDonogh’s legacy, 将“最大的善”作为一种教学和社区价值和工具. 约翰·麦克唐纳的背景和使用奴役劳工的历史, 然而, has never been consistently taught. In part, this is due to a lack of credible historical sources, which this essay attempts to correct.
当我们进入21世纪的第三个十年, and towards our 150th anniversary (2023), it is time to surface 的 whole history of 的 founder of 的 School 和 roots of 的 philanthropy that drives it. 约翰McDonogh’s history shines a light some of 的 complicated ways in which ideals such as capitalism, 奴役, 平等, 自由, 财富, 和慈善事业在19世纪的美国历史上交织在一起. 它也让我们得以一窥奴隶们的复杂生活, 谁的身体被用作劳动力和资本的形式, 他们主动地把自己从奴役中解放出来.
为了进一步了解支撑这篇文章的证据, 请在这个网站上看到这篇研究论文的较长版本, complete with footnotes and a bibliography. Please know that this research is ongoing, 和se essays are subject to revisions accordingly. 一个Lintvedt
* I’d like to thank Dr. John Wood for his work on 的 first version of this essay in 2009 and his conversations about it over 的 years.